The German Colonies and the Schutztruppen

German colonial history is today only a historical footnote, but imperial Germany, like all other Western powers, also sought colonial possessions¹. The corresponding expansionist efforts fall into the 1880s and 1890s of the 19th century.

In the years 1884–85 German colonies were established in South West Africa, Cameroon, Togo, East Africa, furthermore in New Guinea, on the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands. In 1899 the Samoan islands Upolu and Savai'i came under German administration; from Spain Germany had acquired the Caroline, Mariana and Palau islands.

In China the Kiautschou Bay had already been occupied in 1897 (560 sq km). The Germans invested heavily here, over 200 million marks by 1913.

Around 1900 Germany had colonial possessions totaling 2,962,842 sq km, whereas Great Britain had 13,692,252 sq km, France 11,377,058 sq km, Portugal 2,081,911 sq km and Spain 260,171 sq km².

The colonies were popular in Germany, promoted by the Kaiser, and there was an organized colonial movement. In 1919 Germany lost all its colonies, so that the colonial episode — originally arising from private initiatives by merchants — remained an intermezzo in German history.

At the beginning of the 20th century popular fury in China erupted against foreigners who had settled throughout the country and competed with each other for influence³. At the head of the popular uprising stood a communal organization, the Boxers. In the so‑called Boxer Rebellion there were bloody attacks on foreigners, such as the encirclement and bombardment of the foreign quarter in Tientsin and the legation quarter in Peking. In 1900 the German minister, Clemens Freiherr von Ketteler, was murdered.

Foreign countries reacted by sending troops.

In Germany, by order of 25.06.1900 the first expeditionary corps was formed. It consisted of 2 naval battalions, 1 mobile field battery, 1 detachment of pioneers and telegraphers and 1 medical detachment, a total of 2,528 men. This first German force was reinforced by an East Asian Expeditionary Corps formed from volunteers of the land army.

This corps consisted of

3 East Asian infantry brigades each with two infantry regiments,

1 East Asian jägers company,

1 East Asian cavalry regiment (strength: 4 squadrons),

1 East Asian field artillery regiment (composed of 3 divisions each of 3 field batteries),

1 East Asian battalion of heavy field howitzers (composed of 2 batteries of heavy field artillery),

1 East Asian pioneer battalion (composed of 3 companies),

1 East Asian railway battalion (composed of 3 railway construction companies),

1 corps telegraph detachment,

1 medical company, various ammunition columns, trains and supply formations,

as well as field administrative authorities.

The Army High Command in East Asia under General Field Marshal Count Waldersee consisted of 41 officers and officials, 172 men, 185 horses and 27 vehicles.

Temporarily an East Asian Department was established at the War Ministry (16.08.1900 – 21.08.1902).

The infantry regiments of the East Asian Expeditionary Corps were organized into 2 battalions each with 4 companies. In addition, the infantry regiments had a ninth company for replacement purposes or for deployment in the supply area.

The (winter) uniform consisted of a dark blue Litewka with a turnover collar and white shoulder straps with the red regiment number.

There were red patches on the turnover collar.

The black trousers had red piping.

Cap and helmet corresponded in principle to the model for the infantry, as did the leather boots.

In addition there was a so‑called summer uniform. This consisted of a drill coat (Drillichrock). It was greenish‑yellow. The shoulder straps were the same as those of the Litewka.

The shoes were made of brown canvas.

Peaked caps were worn with them. These were the color of the drill coat.

Alternatively white straw hats were used, with the right brim turned up. On this brim was also the large imperial cockade. Beneath it was a smaller national cockade.

A chin strap made of natural leather ensured a secure fit.

The officer's equipment included and was worn:

Straw hat, Litewka, a pair of riding breeches, 1 pair of long boots with double soles, 1 pair of shoulder pieces with the corresponding regiment number, saber, portepee, saber belt, 1 pair of brown gloves, revolver with holster, binoculars with case, signal whistle with cord, map pockets with message cards, compass with capsule.

Furthermore to be packed and taken along:

Litewka, 2 tropical suits of light brown drill, 1 pair of boot soles, a long cloth leg covering, 2 field caps, helmet, 2 pairs of boots or shoes, 4 neckcloths or black standing collars, sleeve vest or leather jacket, paletot, cloak, 4 pairs of woolen gloves, 3 pairs of brown leather gloves, blanket with air cushion at the head end, mosquito net, 2 pairs of shoulder pieces, portepee, wooden‑lidded trunk, mess tin trunk, first aid kit, 1 pair of suspenders, identity tag with name, coat sack of gray waterproof canvas, 4 uniform shirts, 2 woolen shirts for cold weather, 9 pairs of socks, 12 handkerchiefs, 3 towels, 4 undergarment trousers, toiletry set, sewing kit, a box of trouser buttons, a tin of deer tallow, wallet with note paper, writing folder, collapsible writing set, knife, pocket lighter with fuse, waterproof bag for breakfast, waterproof bag for canned goods, collapsible cutlery, marching lantern, boxwood tin with insect powder, tobacco pouch with tobacco pipe, 2 pairs of wrist warmers, woolen belly band, woolen blanket, 6 white suits of cotton cloth for house use, canteen with strap.

The carrying of a greatcoat was also recommended.

Quoted from: Unsere Truppen in Ost‑Asien, Leipzig, p. 22. Reprint (Starnberg 1989).

Zitiert nach: Unsere Truppen in Ost-Asien, Leipzig, S. 22. Nachdruck (Starnberg 1989).

Text

Text

Text

Text

Text

On 17.05.1901 the East Asian Expeditionary Corps was dissolved. From this formation the East Asian Occupation Brigade emerged. This was stationed in Peking, Tientsin, Langfang, Yangtsun, Tangku and Schanghaikwan and was organized as follows:.

1 command staff together with administrative authorities

2 infantry regiments with 6 companies each (of which one company in each was mounted)

1 squadron of Mounted Rifles

1 field battery

1 pioneer company with telegraph detachment

1 field hospital

This East Asian Occupation Brigade was further reduced during 1902 and completely dissolved on 06.03.1906. The military function was taken over by the navy (naval infantry), which provided the garrison of Tsingtau until its capture by the Japanese in the First World War.

In 1897 Kiautschou was seized by the East Asian squadron under Admiral Otto v. Dieterichs. The pretext was the murder of two German missionaries. The lease agreement with the Chinese government for 99 years was not concluded until 06.03.1898. Kiautschou with the town of Tsingtau was a German protectorate until 1919. German trade with China amounted in 1897 to already 80 million Reichsmark, while in the same year total trade with the German protectorates amounted to only 35 million Reichsmark. The leased territory, belonging to the province of Shantung, covered 552 sq km plus a 50 km wide neutral land strip. In 1912 the total population numbered approx. 200,000 people, including 4,500 whites and only 400 Germans. The governors subordinate to the Imperial Naval Office were:

Kapitän zur See Karl Rosendahl - 07.03.1898 – 19.02.1899

Kapitän zur See Otto Ferdinand Paul Jäschke - 19.02.1899 – 27.01.1901

Kapitän zur See Max Rollmann (provisional) – 27.01.1901 – 08.06.1911

Kapitän zur See Oskar von Truppel – 08.06.1901 – 19.08.1911

Kapitän zur See Alfred Meyer-Waldeck – 19.08.1911 – 07.11.1914

The garrison of Kiautschou consisted primarily of the III Sea Battalion and a naval artillery detachment. The parent companies of the III Sea Battalion remained stationed at home with a strength of 755 soldiers. Soldiers designated for overseas service had to be fit for tropical service. They spent the first 7–8 months of their three-year term for training in the home garrison or en route, and then served for 24 months in Kiautschou. The remaining two months were for the return journey. The naval infantry were mainly housed in Tsingtau, but also in Kiautschou, Shatzykou and Tsangkou; a Chinese company was stationed in Litsun. The strength of the III Sea Battalion stationed in the leased territory amounted to 18 officers, 112 non-commissioned officers and 1004 enlisted men; the naval artillery detachment counted 4 officers, 30 petty officers and NCOs and 205 enlisted men. In addition there were 110 soldiers of the naval field artillery, 141 members of the Chinese company and further personnel of the sailors' dockyard division and medical staff.

To protect Germans and capital in the colonies, armed units were required. For the “maintenance of public order and security,” Schutztruppen directly subordinated to the Kaiser were gradually established in the African protectorates.

The imperial command of the Schutztruppen was based as the supreme administrative authority in the Imperial Colonial Office (Berlin).

The commander of the Schutztruppen in 1913 was Major General v. Glasenapp.

The clothing depot of the Schutztruppen was located in Berlin-Schöneberg.

Imperial Schutztruppen existed in German East Africa, South West Africa, Kamerun and Togo.

In Kamerun and Togo only the officers and non-commissioned officers were German citizens, while the rank-and-file consisted of recruited non-white personnel.

For the protectorates the 1913 budget provided for ongoing expenditures totaling 20,124,961 Reichsmark and one-time expenditures of 1,113,607 Reichsmark.

Salaries were higher than those of the Army or the Navy.

The Schutztruppe in South West Africa consisted predominantly of mounted infantry and was equipped and trained according to European standards. The Schutztruppe was, according to § 1 of the law of 22.03.1891, formed from officers, engineers of the soldier class, medical officers, officials and non-commissioned officers of the Imperial Army and the Imperial Navy. Voluntary enlistment was a prerequisite. Furthermore, recruited non-white personnel were employed. The troops assigned to the Schutztruppe were discharged from the Imperial Army or the Navy for the duration of their service. The enlistment (service contract) for German South West Africa was generally for a period of 3 years.

Where volunteers from the infantry presented themselves, knowledge in the care and maintenance of horses was required.

For former cavalrymen particular emphasis was placed on good marksmanship training.

In the last peacetime year (1913) the Schutztruppe in German South West Africa comprised 1,967 Germans.

The horses were initially of German origin, but later more robust Argentine horses were introduced.

The Schutztruppe otherwise consisted of volunteers from the Imperial Army and Navy; only from 1913 were white local residents also admitted as volunteers. In German South West Africa—as in the other protectorates—military stations were established at the most important locations.

The Schutztruppe was deployed in South West Africa in the south and in the north. In the north in 1906 there were 11 companies, 4 guns, 2 machine cannons and 2 machine guns; in the south 25 companies, 38 guns, 6 machine cannons and 19 machine guns.

Furthermore there were rear communications. The commander at that time was: Colonel Dame.

In the last peacetime year, according to Werner Haupt, the Schutztruppe consisted of 90 officers, 20 medical officers, 9 veterinary officers, 35 officials, 369 non-commissioned officers and 1,444 enlisted men.

The officers' uniform in South West Africa is described in the relevant clothing regulation (reprint 1898) as follows:

Hat

Made of gray, soft hair felt with an oval 15 cm high crown. Around the lower edge of the crown a band of cornflower-blue 3 172 cm wide grosgrain, on the left side with a bow. 12 cm wide hat brim with a 1 cm wide binding of cornflower-blue grosgrain. The right side of the brim turned up and attached to the crown of the hat by means of a large German officers' cockade.

Cap

In shape as prescribed for the officers of the Prussian Army, however made of light-gray tricot fabric with cornflower-blue and a similar edging all around the top. In front on the cap band the German officers' cockade.

Waffenrock

Made of light-gray tricot fabric in the cut of the Prussian Waffenrock, but with an angular-cut, slightly stiffened turnover collar provided with 1 pair of hooks and eyes for closing, Swedish cuffs. Collar, cuffs, and facings of cornflower-blue cloth. On each side of the collar and on each sleeve cuff one pair of embroidered silver cords. The buttons are silver-plated, with imperial acorns. On the left shoulder a gray-spun button for fastening the shoulder strap.

Interim coat

Made of light-gray tricot fabric like the Waffenrock, however collar and cuffs made of the fabric of the coat, without cords and provided with a cornflower-blue edging.

Shirt collar

White naval stand-up collar.

Shoulder pieces

According to rank, as with the naval infantry officers, however without imperial crown and with cornflower-blue cloth backing.

Field sash

As in the Prussian Army, however threaded with red silk thread, the buckle silver-plated, with imperial crown. The adjutants wear the sash of the naval infantry.

Saber and saber belt

Infantry sabres of a new model, but instead of the Prussian eagle prescribed on the guard, the imperial eagle, and in place of the smooth button a 1 cm high imperial crown. The saber belt as prescribed for the marine infantry, however carrying and drag straps of natural-colored leather.

Portepee

As prescribed for the Prussian infantry, however the middle of the leather strap is stitched through with a red silk thread.

Gloves

Made of white washed chamois leather. White wool fabric, which externally does not differ materially from this, is permitted.

Footwear

High boots of natural-colored leather, shafts straight, firm and wrinkle-free, reaching to the knee.

Strap-on spurs

As prescribed for the cuirassier officers, the spur straps of natural-colored leather.

Riding breeches

Made of light gray tricot fabric, cut as prescribed for the Prussian infantry, however with

Consisting of two silver shoulder cords 109 cm long and one 25 cm long and 3 cm wide shoulder braid, which runs into a 25 cm long shoulder cord with a knot and with a silvered tip. On the shoulder cords a device for fastening to the shoulder of the tunic.

Footwear

High boots of natural-colored leather, shafts straight, firm and wrinkle-free, reaching to the knee.

Strap-on spurs

As prescribed for the cuirassier officers, the spur straps of natural-colored leather.

Paletot

As prescribed for the officers of the Prussian infantry, however silvered buttons with imperial crowns. Collar and collar tabs inside and out

Characteristic of the Schutztruppe uniform in DSWA was the corded service tunic.

It corresponded in cut to the service tunic worn in the homeland, but was made of sand-gray cord, which became ever lighter through frequent washing.

The insignia corresponded to the home service tunic.

Alternatively the corded field coat was worn, formerly called the cord field litewka. It had the cut of the litewka worn in the homeland and had two inset breast pockets and side pockets with simple pocket flaps.

At the collar no collar patches or braid were applied, however the shoulder cords were worn.

In the previous photo one can clearly see the particular way the carbine is carried in the holster on the saddle (on the right side).

Belt and sidearm were those of the home uniform.

In service the Schutztruppe rifle 98 was used. In place of the usual belt a rear-fastening cartridge belt of natural leather was worn.

This had 12 cartridge pouches and was held by two shoulder straps. The sidearm pouch was sewn to it.

The distinctive hat of the Schutztruppe was a head covering made of light gray hair felt with a hatband and trimming of wool grosgrain in the respective insignia color.

The right side of the hat was turned up. On it was the imperial cockade.

The Schutztruppe in German South West Africa had to endure costly battles against the native Herero⁷ and Hottentots⁸ (1904/07).

The German colonial power only managed with difficulty to suppress the sudden uprising of the native pastoral peoples; it had to be rapidly and substantially reinforced shortly after the start of the rising against the German colonial rulers.

The state of war was not lifted until 31.03.1907. Especially in the initial phase numerous German farmers were killed.

In the later course of the conflict there were great losses among the non-combatants of the rebellious tribes, that is the elderly, women and children, especially when the Schutztruppe drove the Herero fighters with their families after the Battle of Waterberg into the waterless Omaheke Desert. Only a few were able to flee into the neighboring British territory.

In 1905 there existed 2 mounted field artillery detachments.

In Keetmannshoop, which belonged to the southern district, were among others the artillery and train depot, a hospital, the medical depot, the clothing depot, the provisioning office, as well as the garrison administration.

Included in the equipment of the German Schutztruppe in South West Africa was also a tropical uniform.

The tunic of this tropical uniform had a jacket-like shape and was made of yellow khaki twill.

It had a turn-down collar and Swedish sleeve cuffs.

Collar and sleeve cuffs had cornflower-like facings.

The tunic also had such a facing down the front.

The buttons were of white metal and showed the embossed imperial crown.

On the shoulders was a fourfold sewn black-white-red mohair cord.

The rank insignia were on the left sleeve.

The field trousers were also made of yellow khaki twill and had cornflower-blue facings at the sides.

The Schutztruppe also included a camel rider company (7th) in Gochas and Arahoab.

The German Schutztruppe for Cameroon and Togo consisted of German officers and non-commissioned officers.

The ordinary soldiers were recruited colored troops, mostly Hausas or people from Lagos (also Dagombas).

In peacetime the strength of the Schutztruppe was approximately as follows:

1 captain (as commander of the troops in Cameroon), 1 first lieutenant (as commander in Togo), 2 second lieutenants, 1 physician, 19 non-commissioned officers, 1 hospital orderly, 1 paymaster aspirant and 1 gunsmith, in addition to 300 colored privates.

In Cameroon the stations were: Jaunde, Lolodorf and Victoroa.

The staff was stationed in Sappo.

The ranks and colored non-commissioned officers wore the red wrapped fez as headgear. This had a silvered flying imperial eagle on the front.

As outerwear a khaki drill coat like that worn in East Africa was worn.

However, this had on the collar a trim of a red braid and a red piping.

On the sleeves was worn a red braid trim tapering to a point.

The ranks were indicated by arm chevrons of red braid backed in white, namely 1 chevron for the lance corporal, 2 chevrons for non-commissioned officers and 3 chevrons for sergeants.

Musicians were distinguished by white swallow's-nest patches with red braid trim.

In addition, breeches, gaiters and lace-up shoes were worn.

There were also colored sergeants. They wore the general uniform of the colored soldiers, but had a hat like the German NCOs of the home uniform with red trim, together with the khaki tunic and the field trousers of the German non-commissioned officers.

On the left sleeve were 4 red, white-backed chevrons.

To maintain public security and order – in particular to combat the slave trade – a Schutztruppe was also established in East Africa.

Thus the formation was justified by § 1 of the law concerning the Imperial Schutztruppe for German East Africa of 22 March 1891. The foundation day was set as 8 February 1889 in memory of the so-called Wissmann troop.

This had already in April 1889 consisted of 25 German officers, 7 German sergeants and 56 German non-commissioned officers, 6 companies of Sudanese (600 men), 1 company of Zulus (100 men), 1 detachment of Askari (80 men), 1 detachment of Sudanese artillerymen (30 men) and 1 detachment of Somalis (40 men).

The new Schutztruppe under the command of Lieutenant von Zelewski distributed itself to the military stations Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam, Kilwa, Lindi (Mgao), Mpapua, Bukoba, Muana, Masinde and Moschi.

After a severe defeat in the fight against the Wahehe the Schutztruppe was further expanded.

It was organized into a staff, consisting of the commander, 1 senior leader, 7 lieutenants, 1 chief medical officer, 1 quartermaster and 10 companies of 150 men each. The European personnel (165 men) finally consisted of 2 staff officers, 11 captains, 17 first lieutenants, 15 second lieutenants, 60 non-commissioned officers, 1 senior staff surgeon, 15 staff and assistant surgeons, 26 hospital orderlies, 1 paymaster, 13 paymaster aspirants, 1 chief artificer and 3 gunsmiths.

The colored personnel consisted of 16 officers, 134 non-commissioned officers and 1,900 privates. The 12 companies were stationed at 1. Moshi, Kisuami and Marangu, 2. Iringa, 3. Camp Idunda, 4. Kilimatinde and Mpapua, 5. Dar es Salaam, 6. Kilwa, 7. Pangani, 8. Lindi, 9. Udjidji, 10. Tabora, 11. Bukoba and Manza and 12. Kiloossa.

The staff headquarters was in Dar es Salaam.

In total the Germans recruited several tens of thousands of mercenaries in Africa, Asia and Oceania for the Schutztruppe between 1884 and 1918. In East Africa the local personnel were the Askaris, with whom a certain myth of loyalty is associated.

Initially mainly foreigners, i.e. Sudanese, Somalis, Abyssinians, Manyema, Baganda and Bemba, already by 1914 locals made up 72.5% of the Askari.

The colored soldiers in East Africa wore a tropical uniform. As headgear they wore the so-called tarbush with a neck flap. At the front the tarbush showed a silvered flying imperial eagle. For work duty and off duty a red fez with a black tassel was worn. As outerwear a khaki drill coat was put on, which in cut resembled the drill jacket used in the army. The khaki drill coat had a low turn-down collar and shoulder straps of the base cloth. At the front it was closed by 5 smooth nickel buttons. On this coat the various rank insignia were attached on the left upper sleeve, namely: Askai (= private) no chevron, Ombascha (= lance corporal): one chevron, Schausch (= non-commissioned officer) two chevrons, Betschausch (= sergeant) three chevrons and Sol (= sergeant) four chevrons.

The Askari trousers were made of khaki drill. They were breeches. Field-gray gaiters were worn with them. As footwear served lace-up shoes made of natural leather.

There were also colored officers (= Effendi).

These basically wore the uniform of the Askaris, however the tunic of the German non-commissioned officers. This had shoulder straps of the base cloth and on them 3 Egyptian rank stars.

The tunic had cornflower-blue facings on the sleeve cuffs. At the station a long field trouser was worn.

As armament the cavalry sabre 52 was used.

The tropical helmet for officers of the Schutztruppe in German East Africa shown in the previous photo is described in the relevant clothing regulations of 04.06.1891 as follows:

„Made of Hollundermark covered with white woolen fabric, according to the pattern. Flying imperial eagle, gilded fluted spike on a claw-shaped base. The four claws are fastened by four golden stars on the helmet. Around the lower part of the head and over the front and rear brim runs a golden cord ½ cm wide. Over the middle of the front brim the black-white-red cockade is attached to the golden cord. On small hooks fixed on the inner side parts of the brim hangs the chinstrap of white lacquered leather with a gilded buckle. For the garrison uniform the same helmet is worn, but without eagle, cord and helmet spike together with the claw-shaped base. In place of the spike and base comes a ventilation cap covered with white woolen fabric. The cockade is fastened over the middle of the front brim. The helmet intended for the garrison uniform receives for the field uniform a covering of waterproof brown woolen fabric; the cockade is to be visibly attached over this according to regulations.“

Officers essentially wore the non-commissioned officers' uniform, but without the chevron rank insignia, instead wearing the shoulder straps of the respective rank.

The insignia color was white.

The sash was worn only for garrison duty and on parades, not in the field.

For formal dress a white mess jacket was worn, a white cotton waistcoat, white cotton trousers, as well as a white shirt with a standing collar and a black bow, and black patent-leather boots or patent shoes.

The musicians of the colored ranks had swallowtail collars made of khaki drill with trim of red braid. The trim was attached vertically.

Text

In German New Guinea and German Samoa there were no proper Schutztruppe, only police troops.

Already at the beginning of the World War the situation of the German units in the colonies was hopeless; they could not hope for personnel reinforcements or supplies of material.

Only in German South West Africa did a well-armed Schutztruppe composed of Germans exist, although it was not very large in numbers.

In addition, reservists (823) as well as members of Landwehr I and II and the Landsturm were called up.

The active force comprised 1,967 officers, non-commissioned officers and men. In addition there were 482 men of the colonial police.

Provisions were stockpiled for 14 months; in armament, among other things, there were 12,500 rifles - 98.

Against the Schutztruppe in DSWA approximately 67,237 white and 33,545 colored soldiers were deployed.

The numerically limited German Schutztruppe could not withstand such an overwhelming force.

After initial fights the remainder (approx. 800 men) assembled at Kkorab and here awaited the enemy assault of about 8,000 men.

They capitulated after various battles against the overwhelmingly strong enemy—mostly British and South African units—on 09.07.1915 and suffered a total loss of about 170 dead.

The German colonial era in Windhoek ended during the First World War in May 1915, when South African troops under the British flag captured and occupied the city. Over the next five years South West Africa was governed by a military administration and, from 1921, by the mandate administration.

The fighting in East Africa under Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck is legendary. Under his leadership the Schutztruppe, which consisted predominantly of non-European soldiers (peacetime strength approx. 3,000 men, namely 410 Germans and 2,682 Askaris), was able to hold out until the end of the World War.

Generally avoiding direct confrontation with the enemy, the war in East Africa was characterized by small-scale warfare and patrol operations. Extremely mobile, the Schutztruppe could not be cornered and is said to have tied down some 300,000 enemy soldiers over the years. Its maximum strength reached 14,000 men, of whom only 3,000 were Europeans.

Only after the armistice signed in Europe on 13.11.1918 did the force fighting far from home surrender to the British.

After the First World War the partly adventurous-looking campaigns in East Africa became extremely popular; contributing to this were the memoirs of the commander—later promoted to major general—written in a light tone especially aimed at young readers.

On German colonial history

See, among others, Horst Gründer, Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien, Paderborn 1985; Gisela Graichen / Horst Gründer, Deutsche Kolonien. Traum und Trauma. Berlin 2005; and Guido Knopp, Das Weltreich der Deutschen, Munich 2010.

See on the Boxer Uprising in general: Egbert Kieser, Als China erwachte. Der Boxeraufstand. Esslingen and Munich 1984.

Jean Mabire, Blutiger Sommer in Peking. Der Boxeraufstand in Augenzeugenberichten. Vienna 1978.

Mechthild Leutner / Klaus Mühlhahn, Kolonialkrieg in China. Die Niederschlagung der Boxeraufstand 1900 – 1901. Berlin 2007.

On the deployment of German troops in the Boxer Uprising see: Herbert v. Kleist, Die Kämpfe des III. Seebataillons während der Wirren 1900/01, Tsingtau n.d. and Deutsche Truppen im Land des Drachen. Boxeraufstand und Krieg mit China. Wolfenbüttel 2007.

On the garrison of Tsingtau:

Unsere Truppen in Ostasien. Reprint of the Leipzig edition (2nd ed.) Starnberg 1989.

Deutsche Truppen im Land des Drachen. Boxeraufstand und Krieg mit China. Wolfenbüttel n.d.

C. Huguenin, Geschichte des III. Seebataillons. Tsingtau 1912.

On the Schutztruppen:

See also: Werner Haupt, Die Deutsche Schutztruppe. 1898/1918. Utting (1988); and Reinhard Schneider, Die Kaiserliche Schutz- und Polizeitruppe für Afrika. Felduniform, Ausrüstung und Bewaffnung. Stegen / Ammersee 2005.

Thomas Morlang, Askari und Fitafita. “Farbige” Söldner in den deutschen Kolonien. Berlin 2008.

H. Fonk, Deutsch-Ostafrika. Die Schutztruppe, ihre Geschichte, Organisation und Taktik, 1907 (reprint 2011).

On the campaigns in Africa:

Walter Nuhn, Sturm über Südwest. Der Hereroaufstand von 1904 – A dark chapter of Germany’s colonial past in Namibia. Bonn 1996.

Walter Nuhn, Enemy Everywhere – Guerrilla War in the Southwest. The Great Nama Uprising 1904–1908. The Great Nama Uprising (Hottentot Uprising) 1904–1908 in German South West Africa (Namibia). Bonn 2000.

Lettow-Vorbeck, Heia Safari. Germany’s Struggle in East Africa. Leipzig 1920.

Hans Dollinger (ed.), The First World War in Pictures and Documents, Wiesbaden S. 1965, pp. 18–19.

On uniforms:

Bekleidungs-Vorschrift für die Kaiserlichen Schutztruppen Berlin 1891 (reprint).

Die Deutsche Marine und die Deutsche Schutztruppe für Ost-Afrika, Leipzig (reprint Starnberg 1989).

Die Deutschen Schutztruppen in Afrika, Leipzig (reprint Starnberg 1989).

Unsere Truppen in Ost-Asien, Leipzig (reprint Starnberg 1989).

Herbert Knötel / Paul Pietsch / Baron Collas, Uniformkunde. Das Deutsche Heer. Peace Uniforms at the Outbreak of the World War. Vol. I, text volume, reprint Stuttgart 1982.