Military Headgear in the Revolutionary Wars, in the Napoleonic Wars and in the Biedermeier - with drawings by the author

On 17 August 1786 Frederick the Great died at Sanssouci and was interred in the garrison church in Potsdam. He left his successor an experienced army.

At that time the army comprised, according to Jany (History of the Prussian Army, vol. III, p. 134):

Infantry

141 battalions (including the 32 grenadier battalions) with 111,730 men,

the Regiment of Foot Jägers with 1,302 men,

3 regiments of light infantry with 4,899 men,

Cavalry

133 squadrons of cuirassiers and dragoons with 22,849 men,

100 squadrons of hussars and Bosniaks with 15,109 men,

as well as mounted field jägers with 176 men

and furthermore hussar detachments with 26 men,

furthermore

the field artillery corps with 9,746 men,

the garrison regiments with 37 battalions with 26,298 men,

the garrison artillery with 13 companies and a detachment in Brieg with 1,761 men,

the miners with 4 companies with 484 men,

the pontonniers with 29 men and

the staffs of the provincial regiments (4) with 429 men.

King Frederick William II (* 25 September 1744 in Berlin; † 16 November 1797 in the Marble Palace in Potsdam) reformed, among other things, the uniform regulations.

This change also affected headgear: the previously worn hats, the grenadier and fusilier caps were abolished and replaced by a bicorne. This "Casquet" had round-cut brims edged in white and attached to the crown by cords. The brims could be let down in bad weather. On the front brim there was a brass ornament: for the musketeers a intertwined royal cypher, for the grenadiers a grenade and for the fusiliers a flying eagle.

The fusiliers were now a kind of light infantry. Hat cords were no longer foreseen, but the musketeers had a hat plume and the grenadiers a white pompon. The hair queue was shortened.

Frederick William III (* 3 August 1770 in Potsdam; † 7 June 1840 in Berlin) assumed the regency in 1797 and again changed the uniform regulations.

Thus the former bicorne hats were abolished and the earlier three-cornered hat shape (3) was reintroduced, albeit in a fashionable modification, i.e. the hat was no longer as flat as before. The new hat now had plumes and cords in the old regimental colors.

The queue was again shortened and powdering of the hair was now done only for parade purposes.

A novel cap was created for the grenadiers. It had a black leather front plate with a black wool trim and a brass plate. The latter was adorned with the Prussian eagle. Above it was a grenade. The actual head portion of black felt was lower and provided with a braid in the regimental colors. On the left a white plume was worn.

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Since 25 June 1796 the hussar regiments were to wear only the felt caps described above; only the Göckingk Regiment (No. 2) still had fur caps. On 18 March 1805, however, shakos made of felt with a leather peak were introduced following the Russian model (4). At the front there was a rosette cockade in the regimental colors; only Hussar Regiment No. 5 had a skull as ornament. On the upper rim sat a plume, below it the cockade. A colored cord was placed around the upper rim of the shako, the tassels of which hung down on the right.

The shako was a military headgear with a cylindrical or conical shape and had Hungarian roots. It became one of the characteristic headpieces not only in the Napoleonic army. It also dominated the uniformry of the 19th century in most European armies and later (from 1871) in the German Imperial Army — in reduced form — became the typical headgear of Jägers and riflemen and also of other branches such as the telegraph or airship troops.

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The shako replaced the hat still worn in the early French Empire. Funcken (Liliane and Fred Funcken Historical Uniforms, Vol. 3, p. 34) writes on this subject: "In place of the hat came the shako with a metal plate and cockade. This headgear consisted of a felt stump with a leather cap over it forming the upper rim. At the lower felt rim there was at the back a buckle to adjust the head width. The plate mounted above the leather peak changed shape several times over the course of time. Above it sat a cockade, and the upper rim was adorned by a pompon or a small plume. A white, usually braided cord surrounded the shako front and back like a garland, to the right of which hung two round plates with a tassel attached. Two chin straps fastened under the chin gave this heavy headgear support. The shako provided better protection against saber cuts, but it also served the soldier in the field to stow a comb, onions, shoe polish or a bottle.".

The grenadiers of the line infantry wore the shako with red lace; the small plume and the hanging skirt were also red. For the voltigeurs it was yellow and/or green and for the fusiliers dark green, sky blue, yellow or violet, i.e. in the colors of the respective company.

According to the uniform regulations of 1812 the hanging skirt should actually have been omitted, but in practice it remained in use for a long time. The new model was slightly shorter than the previous version, but broader at the top.

The shako plate in its late form — as described above — showed the eagle on a semicircular shield with the regimental number. There were, however, deviations from this.

Officers' shakos had gilded fittings and gold braid trim.

In the field the shako was regularly worn with a single-color cover made of linen or oilcloth.

The French infantry was divided into line regiments and light infantry regiments. At the beginning of the Empire there were 26 light infantry regiments, although the numbering ran up to No. 31, so 5 numbers were therefore unassigned. Further new formations followed. In 1814 there were 35 corresponding units. The numbering went up to No. 37.

The light infantry was the first arm to receive the felt shako with leather. This was introduced from 1804 and had Hungarian origins. The peak was movable and removable. In the early period the shako plate consisted of a metal hunting horn.

Partly, however, depictions of the shako without ornamentation and cockade have been transmitted from the early period.

Later a lozenge-shaped metal plate was introduced showing a hunting horn beneath the imperial crowned eagle. The plate was made of polished metal. The cockade was initially worn on the left.

Furthermore the shako was decorated with a green cord ending in two braided plates and tassels. For the chasseurs the small plume on the shako was green. The carabiniers had a red small plume on the shako. The voltigeurs had green and/or yellow small plumes. The plume tufts could have different shapes. The shako skirt also varied: white for the chasseurs, red, yellow or green for the voltigeurs.

From 1806 the shako was equipped with a chin strap (sometimes with metallic scales). In practice, however, the headgear was worn in various variations, e.g. Rousselot or Knötel also show a red shako (1809). In the field a oiled-cloth cover was customary. The shako was then also worn without the hanging skirt.

The famous Napoleonic Imperial Guard was an elite formation within the Grande Armée, which emerged from the Consular Guard (Garde des Consuls) and encompassed all arms.

The famous Foot Grenadiers of the (Old) Imperial Guard trace their origins to the Consular Guard.

The grenadier regiment there was reorganized on 29 July 1804 and now consisted of two grenadier battalions and a Velites battalion. In 1810 a second regiment of Foot Grenadiers was formed from the former Dutch Guard.

On 18 May 1811, however, a second regiment of Foot Grenadiers was created and the Dutch grenadiers were then assigned number 3.

The characteristic black bearskin of the Foot Grenadiers showed a copper cap plate at the front with the imperial eagle flanked by two flaming grenades. Officers had a gilded cap plate. On the left side of the bearskin a red small plume was worn. Beneath it was the cockade in the colors of the French tricolor. The cloth patch of the bearskin showed a white cross until 1807 and thereafter a white or golden grenade.

Originally only one regiment of Chasseurs à cheval belonged to the cavalry of the Imperial Guard. The unit goes back to the guides of the young General Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt and served as Napoleon's bodyguard.

They were incorporated into the Consular Guard on 2 December 1799 and, according to Jack Cassin-Scott, were initially only 112 men strong.

One of the squadrons of the Chasseurs à cheval was assigned directly to the Emperor in every campaign.

As headgear the unit wore a bearskin with a red bag. The small plume was green at the bottom and red at the top.

Chasseurs à cheval also belonged to the Young Guard. These, however, wore a high cylindrical shako with peak (see the following illustration).

The dragoons of the Napoleonic Imperial Guard were formed by an imperial order of 15 April 1806. They counted among the heavy cavalry of the Imperial Guard. The unit recruited from contributions of the line dragoon regiments. Since the Empress became sponsor of this unit, they were soon simply called the Empress's dragoons.

The uniform was generally modeled on the long-tailed coat of the mounted grenadiers, with whom they also formed a brigade. The base color, however — as was usual for dragoons — was green. A special feature of their uniform was the decorative helmet with crest made of brass. The helmet bell was surrounded by an imitation leopard skin.

The magnificent helmet had scale chains and a red plume was worn on the left. The front tip of the comb was adorned with a black tassel. The horsehair tail was black. Sappers wore the bearskin with yellow-red hanging skirt. For the walking-out uniform (tenue de ville) a bicorne was worn. In addition the camp cap was worn, which had a red trim and showed a flaming grenade at the front.

Three regiments of lancers (Lanciers) also belonged to the Napoleonic Imperial Guard. Their origin was a Polish honor guard. The (1st) Polish Lancers of the Imperial Guard were subsequently formed in 1807. However, they were not armed with the lance until 1808.

The uniform of the 1st regiment consisted of a royal blue kurtka with crimson collars, facings, cuffs and skirt facings. The braid trim was silver. The kurtka had red facings. White epaulettes and similar shoulder cords were worn with the coat. The buttons were white. The breeches in the field were blue with two crimson stripes. For parade the officers wore crimson trousers with silver lace.

The czapka was adorned with a yellow brass plate with a radiating wreath (sun rosette), which bore a large "N" in the center. The upper head part — covered with crimson cloth and white-trimmed at the edges — had a square lid. On the left the czapka bore the cockade, which was decorated with a silver Polish cross. Above it a high white plume was worn. The hanging skirt (chin cord etc.) was also white.

In the field the czapka was protected by a black oilcloth cover.

The Mamelukes also belonged to the Napoleonic Imperial Guard. The small formation had its origin in the failed attempt to conquer Egypt by a French army under the command of Napoleon and was incorporated into the Imperial Guard on 13 October 1804. It consisted of two companies and a staff. The newly formed unit comprised — besides former Syrian and Coptic soldiers — above all Algerians, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, etc. The Mamelukes also took part in military actions, e.g. in the suppression of the uprising in Madrid during the Peninsular War in 1808. The unit was dissolved in 1814. Only a few Mamelukes accompanied Napoleon into his exile on the island of Elba.

They were probably the most colorful unit in the French army and were visually striking in particular because of their oriental dress.

The kit of the Mamelukes was oriental in character; however, the exact colors of the individual garments were not prescribed.

Their headgear was a so-called fez with a white turban (made of muslin), decorated at the front with a crescent and a star and topped by a pompon with a plume.

From 1807 a higher kahuk was worn. This too was wrapped with a turban.

A company of sappers or pioneers also belonged to the Napoleonic Imperial Guard. This was formed on the occasion of a fire disaster at the Austrian embassy in Paris. From the experience of inadequate fire protection, it was decided that in future a special unit should operate the pumps in the imperial palaces. The Sapeurs du Génie were created by imperial order of 16 July 1810.

Particularly characteristic for the Guard pioneers was their helmet with a high bell made of polished steel with crest and comb. It had brass fittings, a large black fur roll of horsehair and, for parade, a red small plume on the left side. The scale chains were also made of brass. These were held by radiating cockades with a superimposed star. As helmet ornament served the crowned imperial eagle with a thunderbolt bundle. Below the eagle there was a decorative bandeau. The musicians had a red fur roll. This helmet later became a model especially for French fire brigades.

During entrenching or digging work within the effective range of enemy guns a two-piece cuirass was worn as well as a special helmet. This protective equipment was made of iron. The line pioneers also wore this equipment for work in the trench.

In the French army before 1802 there was only one cuirassier regiment, namely the 8th Cavalry Regiment.

In 1802 regiments No. 2 to 7 were first equipped, and then in 1803 the remaining regiments (Nos. 8–12) of the existing heavy cavalry were outfitted with helmets and cuirasses. In 1809 regiments Nos. 13 and 14 were added. Cuirassier Regiment No. 14 was the former 2nd Dutch cuirassiers.

The cuirassiers wore an iron helmet that resembled the dragoon helmet. The yellow-metal comb was adorned with a black horsehair tail. In the field this was sometimes braided into a single plait. The helmet bowl had a trimming of black fur or pelt. On the left a red plume decorated the helmet, usually not in the field. There were, however, deviations in plume colors; for example the 8th and the 10th cuirassier regiments wore them in black with a yellow tip.

The senior officers of the cuirassiers wore white field plumes. So did the trumpeters. The helmet could also be worn with a protective cover.

In addition, hats were worn, e.g. with the dress uniform, and of course the camp cap, also by officers.

Under the First Consul the number of dragoon regiments in the French army was increased on 24.09.1803 to 30 units. This number still existed in 1812. Twenty-four of these dragoon regiments were already in 1804 grouped into mixed formations, each composed of three mounted and one dismounted detachment. Each detachment comprised two companies.

The dragoons wore a (dark) green coat with lapels and long skirts. The coat was cut to a point at the front. Green grenades were on the coat lapels. In 1812 the spencer with shorter skirts was then introduced.

The French dragoons wore the yellow-metal arched helmet modeled on the classic example of the "Volontaires de Saxe" from 1743. It had a brown fur trim and a black horsehair tail. Trumpeters regularly had white horsehair tails (see the illustration below). At the front of the comb there was a small tuft (also of horsehair).

For parade purposes the helmet was adorned with a short red plume on its left side. For officers this was white. There were many deviations from this in practice. Elite companies, pioneers and sometimes trumpeters wore fur caps.

The French light cavalry also included the chasseurs on horseback. In 1801 there were 26 units. Eventually the chasseurs on horseback numbered 31 formations (1811). Regiments 30 and 31 were converted into chevau-légers. Each regiment was organized into four detachments of two companies each.

In the 1805 campaign each army corps included a division of light cavalry. This consisted of hussars and chasseurs on horseback. Their task was primarily reconnaissance and masking troop movements or depriving the enemy of supplies.

The base color of the chasseurs on horseback uniform was from the outset (dark) green. At first the chasseurs on horseback were uniformed like the hussars, i.e. they wore a dolman and a winged cap. From 1804, however, the uniform was changed. From then on the chasseurs on horseback were to wear a coat with long skirts. In part the hussar uniform continued to be worn, for example by the 27th Regiment until 1814. The regiments were distinguished by a specific facing color. This facing color appeared on the collar and the sleeve and coat lapels. In the coat lapels a hunting horn could be seen.

With the change of uniform shakos also became common. These generally displayed a metal plate in the form of a lozenge at the front. The braid on the black shako was white. The headgear was also decorated with a plume, which usually showed the facing color of the respective regiment. The shako could also have red cords or trimming stripes (mostly on elite companies) or a covering (not an overcover) in the regimental color. The pompons of the shakos generally had the following colors: 1st squadron = red, 2nd squadron = sky blue, 3rd squadron = orange and 4th squadron = violet. In the field a cover could be worn over the shako.

In France the hussar arm was introduced from 1692. In 1792 there were 13 hussar regiments (Rogers, p. 66). This number was subsequently reduced. In 1803 only 10 regiments remained. In 1810 an 11th hussar regiment was added.

In the revolutionary years the hussars wore the winged cap with a long wing of colored cloth. It appears an eyeguard could also be attached to this.

The shako served as headgear. It had a white drooping and a plume in the regiment's facing color. Around 1805 the black shako was adorned with a large tricolor which replaced the previous cap plate. In 1807 a lozenge was introduced as ornamentation. This showed the regimental number. From 1810 a cap plate in the form of an imperial eagle was used. Waterproof shako covers were used in the field.

The elite companies of the hussars wore fur caps. Their kolpaks were red. The droppings were likewise red, blue or white.

The new Prussian cavalry after 1808 also included cuirassiers. In that year four line dragoon regiments were converted into cuirassiers. Thus there existed — alongside the two guard regiments — eight cuirassier regiments (Nos. 1–8).

The old Prussian cuirassiers had still worn the hat. In 1809 the Prussian cuirassiers received helmets of Russian form. These were arched helmets whose main part consisted of black leather. The front and rear brims were rounded, the front brim having a brass edging.

A black horsehair crest was attached to the leather comb; for the trumpeters this was red.

At the front the arched helmet was adorned with a brass plate which showed the eagle of the line. The guard formations had the guard star here. The helmet fittings were gilded for the officers.

The headgear was held by scale chains. Under the left scale chain sat the black-and-white wool cockade. For the officers this was made of silk and black-and-silver.